Visual Analysis Assessment Form of Figurative Work Assignment

Visual Analysis Assessment Form of Figurative Work - Assignment Example In this painting, Hockney uses a collection of watercolors to create a deep impression of the skies at night. In addition, David uses five watercolors to paint a picture of the seas and atmosphere at night. The blue colors in the foreground give a feel of cool seawater at night. Cool colors and the foreground give an illusion of calmness in the sea at night. David also manages to paint brown watercolors to describe the rocky mature of the seabed (Castillo 77). A collection of brown rocks beneath the sea gives a different texture from the calm, smooth waters of the blue sea. David Hockney manages to paint the reflection of the sun on the blue sea. A mixture of orange and yellow colors is used to create a perfect reflection of the sun on the waters. The artist uses yellow colors towards the inside of the sun to indicate high intensities of heat. Orange reflections toward the periphery of the reflection indicate that the sun is less hot on the outside part. In this painting, there is a great aspect of tonal range. Bright colors including orange and red have been used in the sky. Orange color shows the intensity f brightness of the sun. The clouds n the sky are painted red to show that they are closely associated with the sun (Fichner-Rathus 71). The reflection of clouds in the blue sea has a brown color showing a reduction in tone. In this painting light seems to be coming from the sky. There is total darkness at the vanishing point between the sky and the sea. There are certain striking features about this picture. What has caught my attention most is the yellow and orange reflection of the sun I the foreground. David Hockney gives an impression of a brighter sun in the sea than at the sky level. The intensity of brightness of the sun is greater at the water level than at the sea. This piece of artwork manages to create movement. David Hockney uses waves and water reflections to create movement in the picture. Brown

Guyana-Land of Many Waters Essay Example for Free

Guyana-Land of Many Waters Essay Guyana (guy-anna),[6] officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana,[1] is a sovereign state on the northern coast of South America. Culturally Guyana is part of the Anglophone Caribbean. Guyana is one of the few Caribbean countries that is not an island. The Caribbean Community (CARICOM), of which Guyana is a member, has its secretariats headquarters in Guyanas capital, Georgetown. Guyana was originally colonized by the Netherlands. Later, it became a British colony and remained so for over 200 years until it achieved independence on 26 May 1966 from the United Kingdom. On 23 February 1970, Guyana officially became a republic. In 2008, the country joined the Union of South American Nations as a founding member. Guyana, a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations, is the only South American nation whose official language is English. Historically, the region known as Guiana or Guyana comprised the large shield landmass north of the Amazon River and east of the Orinoco River known as the Land of many waters. Historical Guyana consists of three Dutch colonies: Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice. Modern Guyana is bordered by Suriname to the east; by Brazil to the south and southwest; by Venezuela to the west; and by the Atlantic Ocean to the north. At 215,000 square kilometres (83,000 sq mi), Guyana is the third-smallest independent state on the mainland of South America after Uruguay and Suriname. Its population is approximately 770,000. The name Guyana is derived from Guiana, the original name for the region that now includes Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and parts of Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the name comes from an Amerindian word meaning land of many waters. here are nine Native American tribes residing in Guyana: the Wai Wai, Machushi, Patamona, Arawak, Carib, Wapishana, Arecuna, Akawaio, and Warrau. Historically the Arawak and Carib tribes dominated Guyana. Although Christopher Columbus sighted Guyana during his third voyage (in 1498), the Dutch were the first to establish colonies: Essequibo (1616), Berbice (1627), and Demerara (1752). After the British assumed control in the late 18th century, the Dutch formally ceded the area in 1814. In 1831 the three separate colonies became a single British colony known as British Guiana. A map of Dutch Guiana 1667–1814. Since Independence in 1824, Venezuela has claimed the area of land to the west of the Essequibo River. Simon Bolivar wrote to the British government warning against the Berbice and Demerara settlers settling on land which the Venezuelans claimed was theirs. In 1899 an international tribunal ruled the land belonged to Great Britain. Map of British Guiana. Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 26 May 1966 and became a republic on 23 February 1970, remaining a member of the Commonwealth. The US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), along with the British government, played a strong role in influencing political control in Guyana during this time. The American government supported Forbes Burnham during the early years of independence because Cheddi Jagan was identified as a Marxist. They provided secret financial support and political campaign advice to Burnhams Peoples National Congress, to the detriment of the Jagan-led Peoples Progressive Party, which was mostly supported by Native American Guyanese. In 1978, Guyana received international notice when 918 members of the American cult, Peoples Temple, died in a mass murder/suicide. Most of the suicides were American and more than 300 children were killed; the people were members of a group led by Jim Jones in Jonestown, the settlement which they had created. Jim Jones bodyguards had earlier attacked people landing at a small remote airstrip close to Jonestown, killing five people, including Leo Ryan, the only congressman ever murdered in the line of duty in US history. In May 2008, President Bharrat Jagdeo was a signatory to the UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. Guyana has ratified the treaty.

Strength Training for Children and Adolescents

Strength Training for Children and Adolescents This essay will particular focus on the links between a child development and training load by critically discussing, bone development, muscle mass and strength, menstruation in young females, issues of obesity and physical inactivity, aerobic and anaerobic exercise, and injury. After highlighting the contemporary research surrounding these links, the findings and methodology are evaluated. To begin, a brief definition of training load is put forward. The findings founds within training load and children may not be a as straight forward as it appears as much research has looked at the link between training load and a childs development, through peered reviewed research. The ways of assessing physical activity training load and development, as well as the reasoning why they should and should not take part in exercise, with reference to bone and muscle changes. Also the implications to menstruation in young female athletes and which exercise type of exercise is better for the young. As well as the negative issues relating to injury during physical activity, with reference to the potential affects in to adulthood. Physical activity and health is also known to be beneficial, however the methods and ways in which this is done may give different results. This will be discussed through how physical activity can improve the quality of life and also how being inactive can have issues. It will be looked at through many health conditions including cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, osteoporosis, cancers, and obesity, and also how physical activity can reduce the chance of getting some of these health conditions. It must firstly be mentioned what training load is. Training load is the amount of exercise completed and how much energy used (Rowland, 2005). Children and adolescents have taken part in physical activity through school in physical education classes, but there are those who enjoy exercise more than others. In each case there are physiological implications which can occur, such as developmental issue which can include, bone and muscle problems, injury and health issues such as heart disease, cancers and obesity, as well as menstrual complications in females. Also there are implications for children and adolescents who do not exercise. As children progress into adolescence, the influence of peers and peer pressure becomes noticeable and a widespread decline in physical activity becomes more of a problem. Generally boys will tend to participate in some sort of exercise or sport with friends at a higher intensity than girls (Sallis, 1993). Rowland (2007) suggested that physical activity has many benefits for the young, as it promotes health, thus making you healthy in adult life. However Rowland goes on to mention that more research is needed to look at factors such as frequency and duration of physical activity during childhood as this can determine how reliable the health outcomes maybe in adulthood. Furthermore it was suggested that in the long term that if adolescents are physical active it will enhance bone health and reduce certain cancers such as breast cancer. However Twisk (2001) discussed the onset of many chronic illnesses which start at child and that strategy should be put in to plan to reduce disease early on in life. Exercise found that one important way to stop the on set of disease, but increasing physical during childhood and adolescence. Evidence found that exercise guidelines for children and adolescents is weak, and additional it was found that only a small amount of research which found that exercising when young can be related to health in a dulthood. This can suggest that guidelines based on the public, should be more focused on health benefits, rather than how much exercise should be completed on a daily basis. Behm, Faigenbaum and Klentrou, (2008) produced a review on the recommendations of resistance training on paediatrics, with the correct training methods can be safe and improve health. Studies measuring (anthropometric) children have not found to show an increase in muscular hypertrophy with resistance training in paediatrics with cystic fibrosis and cerebral palsy. Surprisingly it has been mentioned that there is no minimum age to start resistance training in children, however this does need to be structured when exercising. The resistance training in children needs to be with a qualified instruction and while being supervised. This seems in many cases to be unachievable as not every child can have instruction with exercising (e.g. a child running is exercise but does not need instruction or supervision), never the less resistance training exercise can aid in muscle strength, endurance, balance, power and co-ordination and many health benefits. Moderate stress on bones (e.g. weight-b earing exercise) builds a stronger skeleton. Heavy loads or extreme forces can retard bone growth. Therefore, power and heavy weight training should be avoided until later stages of development. Training should be closely monitored during adolescence for signs of stress / overuse. Bones are more susceptible to fractures when growth plates (cartilage sights that are not yet ossified) are still present. If bone growth accelerates faster than muscle length, then undue stress can be placed on the skeleton during growth spurts; this can be exasperated by repetitive exercises or movements. Burrows (2007) found that diseases such as osteoporosis are becoming increasingly high, however weight-bearing exercise is a good way to enhance bone mineral density, making it stronger, if this exercise is continued throughout the growth period. It has been suggested that sport needs to start at perpubertal age to obtain peak bone mass. Sports such as gymnastics and football are recommended to increase peak bone mass. Within this research area there also seems to many authors suggesting that training load will be good for muscle and bone strength, especially weight bearing training as this strengthen the body, additional some authors have mentioned professional support and instruction in training will stop the chances of getting injury, but surely injury will be enviable, as it is the individual who is doing that specific exercise or sport can have an accident. Despite this there are other issues with training load on the young, especially in females and menstruation, as Eliakim Beyth, (2003) study found when looking at exercise training, menstrual irregularities and bone development in children and adolescents. Weight bearing exercise has been know to be important in bone development, this is even more important in children and adolescents, as bone mineral density reaches around 90% of its peak by the second decade. Physical activity in childhood and adolescence can reduce the risk on bone disease such as osteoporosis in later life. However strenuous exercise in females can affect there reproductive system causing athletic amenorrhea (this is the stopping of menstruation for six months or more). This is becoming more popular as it is 4-20 times higher than the general populations, especially in the female athlete. This can lead to skeletal fractures, unstable spine and vertebral joints, as well as menstrual abnormalities. As a result fema le athletes would have to reduce training, to reduce skeletal affects, as this is more harmful to bones growth, especially if a child or adolescence is still at the rapid growth stage at this time and prevent changes in menstruation. Further issues relating to adolescents and training load are growth, maturation and strength. Bernadette (2006) study looked at whether moderate-high amounts of dance training would influence linear growth and sexual maturation if girl ages 8-11 years old, through puberty. Results found that no change of height velocity of the dancers in year one. However when controlling the groups for maturations, fat mass, lean mass and also extracurricular activities (not dancing), there where found to be no changes in growth or velocity growth in height, sitting height or leg length. Thus finding that there was link between age at menarche and hours and years of dance training. Also resulting in no affect occurring in moderate high level of dance training in linear growth or maturation. However it has been found that preadolescent boys and girls can see meaningful gains in strength with proper training. Although it has been documented that adults and adolescents can achieve significant improveme nts with strength training, training gains for children have been questioned. The argument that led to the false belief that children couldnt benefit from training was based on two presumptions. First, it was considered unlikely that notable changes in muscular strength and endurance could occur prior to puberty, due to lower levels of circulating androgens (e.g., testosterone). The underlying assumption was that higher levels of androgens were necessary for improvements in muscle size and strength to occur. Second, children naturally become stronger as they grow, and strength gains beyond that were thought improbable. Previous studies, which seemed to support this, were often limited in study design and research methodology (such as low intensity, low volume or short duration training protocols). Nevertheless, this data seemed to suggest that resistance training was ineffective in the very young population. Faigenbaum (2000) A growing body of scientific evidence in support of childrens strength training has arisen within the past decade. The literature provides strong documentation that both male and female preadolescents can improve strength significantly with well-designed resistance-training programs. Recent reviews analyze the available research by comparison. Although a relatively small number of studies were included, one review revealed that a majority of studies demonstrated strength gains between 13 and 30 percent as a result of training (Falk Tenenbaum, 1996). Another reported similar results for children and youth, and each of the studies included in this review indicated that resistance training was generally effective, regardless of participants or study characteristics (Payne, Morrow, Johnson Dalton, 1997). Gains from strength training for preadolescents are generally attributed to neural adaptations and motor learning, rather than circulating androgens. Muscle hypertrophy, or an increase in the cross-sectional area of a muscle, is not usually detected in children as a result of training. Since muscle size has been correlated with strength, studies indicating no increase in muscle hypertrophy implied that strength training was ineffective in younger participants. On the opposite side of the scale there are those children and adolescence who do not exercise. It is well known that obesity is one of the biggest health problems across the world, but with children becoming less physical active this will be inevitable, along with several other major diseases which can include coronary heart disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, lung disease and some cancers. Watts, Jones, Davis Green (2005) study found evidence that non physically active children are most like to become less physically active in adulthood, furthermore it is encouraged that physical activity habits in children help patterns of exercise in adulthood. Random control trails have been designed to look at exercise training in both children and adolescence. The studies found exercise does have beneficial outcomes, but it does always reduce bodyweight, it does however have more beneficial effects to changes in fat and lean body mass, thus showing the need for better asse ssment in future exercising training studies. Exercise can improve cardiovascular fitness and muscle strength, but little affect on blood lipids and blood pressure in obese youths. Similar important studies have found that exercise improves vascular endothelial function, which was found to be a substitute measure to predict the atherosclerotic risk in children and adolescents who are obese (Celermajer, Sorensen Gooch, 1992).Training studies have found an improvement in vascular function, however an absence in changes in lipid fractions, haemodynamic variables or glucose metabolism as exercise appears to have a beneficial effect on the vasculature (Watts, Beye Siafarikas et al, 2004) Another area which is essential in a children development is the aerobic and anaerobic development in children and adolescence. Cardiovascular function being in childhood but is also different of those of an adult. Children have smaller heart chambers and lower volume than adults, thus finding a lower stroke volume than an adult during rest and exercise. Children have a smaller stroke volume, but a child has a higher maximal heart rate compared to an adult. An adolescent, max heart could be found to be higher than an adult but not quiet as high as a childs (Sharp, 1995). Although higher heart rates can not be compensated for a childs lower stroke volume and theres a childs cardiac output is lower than in adults (Wilmore Costill, 1994). Thus suggesting that more of the cardiac output goes to working the muscle in children than it would in adults (Wilmore Costill, 1994). Children are found to be more naturally aerobic, rather than anaerobic, but unfortunately there are few studies wh ich have found that aerobic capacity in children will improve with training aerobically. Furthermore Rowlands (1992) argued that no studys have been complied which has the specific outline of 12 weeks training, over three days per week, with heart rates of 160 beats per minute over twenty minutes as a minimum requirement, as well as a large group of participants, with a control, thus being similar to an adults training schedule. Rowland found that if children complete a similar aerobic training routine and intensity to an adult, they would improve there V02 max between 7 and 26%. Which suggests children can improve aerobic fitness from an adult training program. Sharp (1995) found that children have a lower lactate production and the anaerobic threshold in children give heart rates of between 165-170 beat per minute, which is similar to a trained endurance adult. Yet sedentary adults anaerobic threshold is between 120-150 beats per minute. Which means that heart rate will be higher in a sedentary child than an adult. More evidence has supported high intensity stimulus theory that activity level in children is not related to V02 max (Rowland, 1992). As children are not as active as they once were, Armstrong Welsman (1994) stated that they are still aerobically fit, which suggest children are naturally fit. Thus, to improve a childs natural fitness, a good, strong training program is needed. Whether children exercise aerobically or anaerobic, there is the issue of heat conditions, also know as thermoregulation. Falk (2008) found that children produce more heat per kilogramme body weight than adults, but their thermoregulatory system is not as good. This is partly because they sweat less. For example, a 12-year-old boy may sweat 400ml per square meter of skin per hour, compared to an adult mans 800ml. Girls and women sweat proportionately the same, although less in absolute quantity terms. Children also tend to have higher skin temperatures, which hinder the flow of heat from body core to the periphery. However, children have a proportionately greater skin surface area the smaller they are. A young adult weighing 64kg will have a surface area of about 1.80 square meters; an eight year- old weighing 25kg will have a skin area of 0.95 square meters, i.e. 36 per cent more surface area per unit of weight. This helps to correct thermal imbalances, but can be a disadvantage whe n running in direct sun (or swimming in cold water) with the possibility of a faster rate of overheating (or overcooling). Injury is another common occurrence in children who take part in sport and exercise during there development. Adirim (2003) found that within the US around 30 million children take part in sport and exercise, and many of those have an injuries, which is due to overuse, also of those injuries over one third where of school age. With the physical and physiological differences of children and adults, this is one reason why children are more susceptible to injury. Overuse injuries are common, overuse injuries occur from the repetitive application of submaximal stresses to otherwise normal tissues. (Outerbridge Micheli, 1995) Injuries which are the most common are the ankle and knee. Overtraining and exposure to excessive levels of physical activity can cause an increased chance of injury, overuse injuries can affect normal physical growth and maturation. Prevention is the key, gradual rather than sudden increases in stresses and intensity can usually avoid physical breakdown. Early chan ges of the training program can ensure successful return to sport. In conclusion, it can be found after looking through peered reviewed research that training load can have both positive and negative aspects. In research it has found that Moderate stress on bones builds a stronger skeleton. Furthermore heavy loads or extreme forces can retard bone growth. Thus, power and heavy weight training should be avoided until later stages of development. Training load and menstruation in female athletes can have detrimental affects on reproductive development. As a result female athletes would have to reduce training, to reduce skeletal affects, as this is more harmful to bones growth, especially if a child or adolescence is still at the rapid growth stage at this time and prevent changes in menstruation. Surprisingly children are becoming more susceptible to many more health conditions as a result of falling physical activity levels, even when knowing that exercise can improve cardiovascular fitness and muscle strength, but little affect on blood lipids and blood pressure in obese youths. Although it has been found that children are most aerobically fit rather than anaerobic, but unfortunately there are few studies which have found that aerobic capacity in children will improve with training aerobically. Children also have a lower lactate production and the anaerobic threshold in children give heart rates which are similar to a trained endurance adult. Furthermore thermoregulation in children produce more heat than adults, but their thermoregulatory system is not as good. However to correct thermal imbalances, but can be a disadvantage when running in direct sun, with the possibility of a faster rate of overheating or overcooling. Finally injury is another aspect which occurs during a childs development, when taking part in sport and exercise. The most common injuries are overuse (joints commonly affected are ankle and knee). Children are most susceptible to injury during development as they are not coordinated and react slower than ad ults. Its also been found that instructions in training will stop the chances of getting injury. References AD Faigenbaum (2000) Strength training for children and adolescents, Clinics in sports medicine, 19(4): 593-619 Sharp NC. (1995) The health of the next generation: health through fitness and sport. Journal of the Royal Society of Health, 115(1):48-55. Falk, Bareket; Dotan, Raffy, Childrens thermoregulation during exercise in the heat a revisit (2008) Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, Volume 33, Number 2, 1, pp. 420-427(8) Outerbridge RA, Micheli LJ. Overuse injuries in the young athlete. Clin Sports Med. 1995;14:503-516 Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet 1992; 340: 1111-5 Watts K, Beye P, Siafarikas A, et al. Effects of exercise training on vascular function in obese children. J Pediatrics 2004; 144: 620-5 Falk, B., G. Tenenbaum (1996) The effectiveness of resistance training in children: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine 22(3): 176-186. Payne, V.G., J.R. Morrow, L. Johnson S.N. Dalton. Resistance training in children and youth: A meta-analysis. Research Quarterly of Exercise and Sport 68

Color :: essays research papers

What is Color? You are wondering what it is to be a color? Are you a color if you paint yourself white? Is color just an exterior or is it an interior as well? Is the color you are on the outside, the color you are on the inside? Think about it this way, many people in our culture pretend to be something that they are not, just another white man, or just another black man. The fact of life is that you are what you are, and that you cannot, excluding major reconstructive surgery change what you look like. So basically pull out your box of Crayolas and color yourself whatever color you want to be, because everybody is different in their own way. As Webster’s dictionary explains, color is defined 10 different ways. First color can be defined as: a visual attribute of bodies or substances that depends upon spectral composition of the simulating the retina and its associated neural structures. So basically what I am trying to say is that no one color is exactly the same in anyone’s eye. But is it fair to judge a book by its cover, or is it fair to assume that every Twinkie has a different flavored filling, so to speak. In our school alone it is safe to say that there are roughly seventy-five different cultural backgrounds and probably ten different main sects of religion. But it’s unfortunate that people even today are judged by the color of their skin and not the content of their character as Martin Luther King Jr. has said. Even though this is true I feel that it is equally bad that we as a nation group people together stereotyping one person in a group as all the people in a group. So in order to reach n ew heights as a nation we must come together to show that color isn’t everything, and in fact color isn’t anything at all.

High-Tech Government Contracting Essay

FedBizOpps, or FBO, is the Federal government’s web site that posts all Federal procurement opportunities over opportunities with a value over $25,000. It can be thought of as the U. S. Government’s proposal central, or better yet, a request for proposal (RFP) central (â€Å"TurboGSA/What is a FedBizOpps/What is FedBizOpps? ,† n. d. , para. 1). Top Three Reasons Why I believe FedBizOpps Will Enhance Opportunities for Minorities The top three reasons why I believe FedBizOpps will enhance opportunities for minorities is FedBizOpps gov (pronounced fed biz opps) provides a sophisticated search engine for finding more than 40,000 immediate RFP opportunities, as well as archived records. It also lists possible future federal contract opportunities. All GSA Schedule solicitations are also listed on FedBizOps which will assist in bidding for current and future contracts. Several training programs are available at the site to teach you the mechanics of using the FBO system (â€Å"TurboGSA/What is a FedBizOpps/What is FedBizOpps? ,† n. d. , para. 1). The Factors the Government Used to Design and Build This Website The factors the government used to design and build this website are global accessibility, ease of usage, and availability. Due to the need for the government to ensure that the world or every person accesses information in this website, the government made the opportunity accessible in the world wide website (instead of intranet). Through this effort by the government, it is possible for all people all over the world to catch up on what the federal government is doing in terms of procurement opportunities. In addition, the government wanted to ensure that the website is easy to use. Because the government had in mind that all people (minority and majority groups) will be using this website, the website was designed with the information posting page as the homepage to make it easy for people to use the website. The website itself is also a search engine for federal business opportunities with a search boxes at the top of the homepage to ensure that people can reach their destination WebPages with ease. The third factor put in mind when designing this website is availability. The website is hosted on secure and reliable servers. This ensures that chances of being offline are minimal, something that makes this website available and reliable at all times (â€Å"FedBizOpps: the shortened form of the federal business opportunities,† n. . ). Three Improvements I Predict That Could Be Applied to the FedBizOpps Website There are three improvements I predict that could be applied to the FedBizOpps website in the future. First, the website needs to be highly optimized in search engines. This will enhance easy access by people who are searching for information regarding federal procurement opportunities even if they have no idea about the FedBizOpps website. This is, in fact, a way of marketing that is cost-effective. Secondly, the website should have an application to display the most recent federal business opportunities at the top of the website. These may be designed to be â€Å"mobile† through the use of â€Å"marquee† HTML tags to ensure they catch the eye of the reader, thus ensuring that people who visit the website get information about the most recent opportunities at first sight. Thirdly, a summary of the information about the website should be included in the homepage. This will enhance visitors get a glimpse of the function of the website. For instance, when one accesses the homepage, it is hard to understand the function of the website before viewing a number of WebPages. This may discourage new visitors who do not understand what the website is all about (â€Å"FedBizOpps: the shortened form of the federal business opportunities,† n. d. ). Three Services Offered By the FedBizOpps Website through the Website Three services offered by the FedBizOpps web site through the website are: government users can post and manage, as well as, award procurement opportunities. This information posted is available for mass readership. On the website, a tab to view opportunities is placed close to the login form making. In addition, information regarding the possibility to view the opportunities without logging in is displayed near the link to motivate visitors to view opportunities. This logged in ensures that the information is easily accessible. However, this may not translate to many views of the opportunities. This may be improved through placing many â€Å"view opportunities† tabs with various classifications such as states, days, type of opportunities and so on. This is a sure way that visitors will be motivated to view only those opportunities that they interested in. In addition, the website offers a platform for vendor and citizens to search, follow-up and retrieve opportunities. Here, one does not need to be logged in to find opportunities making the information available to all. In contrast, the fact that one needs to log in to retrieve opportunities makes it hard for people who cannot register or remember passwords to access this service. Furthermore, the website services as a marketing platform for government approved business opportunities. In this regard, when a business opportunity is posted on this website, it is easy for people to trust it. However, the failure inability of the federal government to allow posting of classifieds makes this service a limited one (â€Å"FedBizOpps: the shortened form of the federal business opportunities,† n. d. ).

Money as a form of motivation in the work place

Money as a form of motivation in the work place Motivation is described as the forces that account for the stimulation, assortment, course and continuance of behavior[1]. This then means that quite a number of things can motivate people as motivation is goal oriented behavior.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Money as a form of motivation in the work place specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People tend to do things for the rewards they will receive at the end of the task or at the end of a period of time. Money, at the work place is one of the things that get people to work harder. This then shows that money can and is used as a motivational factor in the work place so that employees can strive to give their best and their all at the end of the day. Nowadays, people tend to look at how much they are going to get paid rather than job satisfaction, hence in this light money becomes a motivational force for the workplace and for the employees. In short, money makes peop le wake up in the morning to go to work, sit behind a desk for eight or more hours and go back home tired at the end of the day ready to repeat the whole process again the following day. When workers are money motivated, they will carry out their duties effectively, efficiently and thoroughly so that they can make as much money as possible in the shortest time possible. According to management study guide, Motivation is very important in an organization as it improves the level of efficiency of employees which in turn leads to an increase in productivity, reducing the cost of operations and improving overall efficiency. Motivation in the work place also leads to achievement of organizational goals. Organizational goals are achieved when co-ordination and cooperation take place at the same time which can effectively be achieved through money motivation[2]. Motivation plays a big role when it comes to survival of organizations. If the way to fully motivate employees is to offer them m oney then organizations will offer their employees money so as to motivate them fully in their work therefore improving the organization as a whole. Employers need to also appreciate what inspires employees within the environment of their work and the responsibility that they perform.[3] There are theories of motivation of employees that are linked to money in one way or another. Different researchers came up with different theories explaining the needs of workers:Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Abraham Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory (1983), â€Å"Employees have five levels of needs: physiological, safety, social, ego and self-actualizing. Physiological needs are important as they sustain human life and one cannot survive without them. They are; food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education. Safety needs are the needs to be free of physical danger, fear of losing a job, property, and protection against emotional harm. Social needs include the need to belong and acceptance from others not forgetting the need for affection and friendship. Ego/esteem needs include satisfaction of power, prestige status and self confidence while self actualization is the drive to become â€Å"what one is capable of becoming, it includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self fulfillment†[4]. (Maslow 1943) Maslow insisted that for one to move on successfully to the next level, the wishes at the lower level have to be completely achieved and fulfilled so as to be motivated by the higher needs level. In simple terms, for example, one would not be motivated by social status before he has achieved security or one would not be motivated by safety before he can afford the basic needs, food, shelter, clothing, education, medication, water and sleep. This shows that individuals have to work hard to get enough money so as to satisfy their needs and the needs of their dependants fully. In such a scenario, an employee would be motivated by the money he receives at the end of the work period as then would the employee be able to fulfill his needs therefore proving Maslow’s hierarchy needs theory. According to Shah, and Professor Shah; and Vroom in reference to Vroom’s Valence x Expectancy theory: employee effort will lead to performance which will lead to rewards. The theory focuses on three things: efforts and performance relationship, performance and reward relationship, rewards and personal goal relationship[5]. The theory states that the force of inclination to behave in a certain way depends on the strength of anticipation that the act will be followed by a specific result and on the allure of that result to the individual. In simple terms, valence x expectancy theory states that an employee can be motivated to work harder when their belief is that hard work will result in awarene ss of individual targets in form of some prize; the prize in this case being money.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Money as a form of motivation in the work place specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Rewards can either be positive or negative, the more positive the reward the higher the level of motivation of the employee goes, while the more negative the reward, the less the level of motivation for the employee. In this sense money is seen as the positive reward, encouraging the employee to work harder and more effectively as the results of the employee’s hard work are positive, generating money for the employee, while loss of income is looked as the negative reward. Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory states that certain aspects in the work place result in job satisfaction but when these aspects are abolished they lead to dissatisfaction.[6] In his theory Herzberg states that intrinsic factors are re lated to job satisfaction, while extrinsic aspects are related to dissatisfaction. He based this theory on the question: â€Å"what do people want from their Jobs? he carried out a research and concluded that removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying.† He claims that certain aspects when present in the work place make employees more motivated to work but when these aspects are absent, there is less motivation in the work place. In this scenario money bonuses can be seen as the aspect that brings more motivation to the work place and when there is absence of money there is less motivation amongst the employees. For example, if employees are told they will be paid extra money to come to work during public holidays and weekends, majority of the employees will show up as they are expecting a bonus which is in form of a sum of money at the end of the day. In this way money acts as a motivator to the employees who would give up t heir weekends and holidays with the aim of receiving a certain amount of money. Herzberg pointed out that there are two types of peoples needs: hygiene factors create dissatisfaction when they are missing and create satisfaction when they are there , employees often tend to take existence of these factors for granted for example; salary, working conditions, or job security. Motivators; contribute to satisfaction for example recognition in the work place, promotion, responsibility just to mention but a few. To achieve high motivation and employee output, motivation and hygiene factors must be used together[7]. In reference to Jeremy Bentham’s the carrot and stick approach, individuals are driven by their own self-interest and they are motivated by the desire to avoid pain at all costs and achieve maximum pleasure at the lowest possible cost. â€Å"An employee will work only if the reward is attractive and big enough or if the punishment is sufficiently horrible.†Adverti sing Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The carrot in this theory refers to the rewards while the stick refers to the punishment, in simpler terms employers use the system of rewards and punishment to induce certain behavior traits in their employees. In majority of motivational theories, some kind of ‘carrot’ are recognized and awarded to individuals in this case money, or some form of financial bonuses like a paid vacation, a company car that one does not have to fuel are used as motivational aspects for employees to keep working hard so that they can enjoy the financial rewards at the end of the day. The issue with the carrot approach is that more often than not, individuals get the reward, in spite of their performance levels. The stick on the other hand refers to the punishments accorded to individuals who do not perform their duties well. In the form of fear; fear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of a bonus, demotion or some other form of consequence has, is, and will still continue being an ef fective way of motivation among employees. The thought of loosing ones job and not having a steady income creates fear in the employees who work hard to keep their jobs and secure their income. The stick approach results in poor quality work, defensive behavior from the employees and it is not the best way to use when it comes to motivation of employees. Through the stick approach employees tend to fear and work because they have no other choice and they want to keep their jobs and get income at the end of the day. In using the carrot and stick approach to influence motivation among employees one ought to be careful so that the rewards, money and the penalties that is, loss of employment balance out. In this way an employer will have a peaceful working environment for his employees and himself. Money offers and financial bonuses should be attractive enough and sufficient enough for the employee needs so that they can work hard not only for their benefit but for the benefit of the em ployer and organization at large[8]. According to B.F. Skinner he uses the term operant conditioning to illustrate the effects of the outcomes of a specific character trait on the future repetition of the particular behavior. â€Å"There are four kinds of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Positive and negative reinforcement fortify behavior while on the other hand punishment and extinction deteriorate behavior.† Positive reinforcement encourages behavior in that it offers rewards after certain good behaviors are observed for example; if your work is outstanding one gets an extra bonus and perhaps a promotion. Negative reinforcement on removes a stress factor as a result of good behavior. For example, economic sanctions being lifted from a country due to an improvement on their corruption levels. Extinction refers to getting no reward for something one has done. For example: if one is not getting paid for overtime, they stop working over time. Punishment is where one has to pay for their behaviors, for example; not getting paid the day one comes into work late[9]. In this case of operant conditioning money can be seen as positive and negative reinforcement. This means that the rewards an employee gets for working hard are in form of money either a bonus, or an increase in salary the more the money, the higher the level of motivation among employees . Punishment and extinction in this case can be looked at as loss of work, loss of a steady income and this will lower motivation levels among the employees. People have witnessed workers striking around the world due to payment issues that have arisen from delayed wages, salary arrears, more taxes, or minimum wages. Employee strikes have become a common site mostly due to the financial situations. When employees refuse to work and strike or go on a go, retirements benefits corporate offer this attractive package to employees increasing their motiv ation in their work. Bibliography An, ‘Theories of motivation’, Analytictech , 2003, Retrieved from analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm An, ‘Importance of motivation’, Management study guide, 2001, Retrieved from managementsudyguide.com/importance_of_motivation.htm Bentham, J., Jeremy Bentham: Life, Influence and Perspectives on his thought, Routledge, New York, 1993. Biehler, R. Snowman, J., Psychology Applied to Teaching, 12th ed, Houghton Mifflin, New York, 1997. Knights, D Willmott, H, Organizational behavior and management, London, Thomson Learning, 2007. Maslow, A H, ‘A theory of human motivation,’ Psychological Review, vol. 25, 1943, pp. 370-396. Shah. K Shah, J P, Vroom,V. H. work and motivation, Laynetworks, 2000, Retrieved from http://laynetworks.com/theories-of-motivation.html Ukwuoma, B, Muanya, C Olayinka C, ‘Health workers suspend strike, govt to pay 50% arrears’, 2000, Retrieved from http://news.onlinenigeria.c om/templates/?a=6107z=12 Vroom, V.H. Work and Motivation, Krieger Publishing Company, Manhattan,1982, pp. 48. ‘Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East Africa’, World Socialist 2010, Retrieved from wsws.org/articles/2010/wrks-j16.shtml Footnotes R Biehler J Snowman, Psychology Applied to Teaching, 12th ed. Houghton Mifflin, New York, 1997, 399. Management study guide: importance of motivation V h Vroom, Work and Motivation, Krieger Publishing Company, Manhattan, 1982, pp. 48. A Maslow, ‘A theory of human motivation,’ Psychological Review, vol. 25, 1943, pp. 370-396. K Shah J Shah, Vroom,V. H. work and motivation, Laynetworks, 2000, Retrieved from http://laynetworks.com/theories-of-motivation.html D Knights H Willmott, Organizational behavior and management, London, Thomson Learning, 2007, 83. D Knights H Willmott, Organizational behavior and management, London, Thomson Learning, 2007, 104. J Bentham, Jeremy Bentham: Life, Influence and Perspectives on h is thought, Routledge, New York, 1993, 65. An, ‘Theories of motivation’, Analytictech.com, 2003, Retrieved from analytictech.com/mb021/motivation.htm ‘Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East Africa’, World Socialist, 16th July 2010, viewed on wsws.org/articles/2010/wrks-j16.shtml ‘Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East Africa’, World Socialist, 16th July 2010, viewed on wsws.org/articles/2010/wrks-j16.shtml ‘Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East Africa’, World Socialist, 2010, Retrieved from wsws.org/articles/2010/wrks-j16.shtml A H Maslow, ‘A theory of human motivation,’ Psychological Review, vol. 25, 1943, pp. 370-396. ‘Workers Struggles: Europe, Middle East Africa’, World Socialist, 2010, Retrieved from wsws.org/articles/2010/wrks-j16.shtml B Ukwuoma, C Muanya C Olayinka, ‘Health workers suspend strike, govt to pay 50% arrears’, 2000, Retrieved from http://news.onlinenigeria.com/templa tes/?a=6107z=12

The Dental Application Essay Process

The Dental Application Essay Process Throughout previous pages of this website, I have discussed the benefits of organizing your thoughts before writing your dental application essay. I have also gone over tips and ideas for writing such papers, as well as suggestions for making them stand apart from the rest. In essence, I have given you most of what you need to do in order to submit a stellar composition. Now, I would like to offer some suggestions on how to take care of yourself during the process. Being good to yourself is of paramount importance when writing graduate school admissions essays. As the author, the second that your state of mind starts to deteriorate, your written work does so as well. Therefore, in order to keep your mind and body functioning during the admissions essay writing process you must make sure you get adequate rest and nourishment. Something that I recommend to anyone writing a dental application composition is to take frequent breaks. Regardless of how badly you want to get the process over with, you absolutely must take breaks to keep your mind and body sharp. Not taking breaks will result in frustration, poor writing, and a pitiful final product. Another thing I recommend is to set aside specific time frames for writing your dental application essay. Give yourself a starting point and a breaking point and do not deviate from either one. If you can will yourself to work on your paper for one hour each day for two weeks (rather than twelve hours in one day), I guarantee your diligence will result in a stellar paper.

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Affirmative Action Creates Unfair Playing Field essays Affirmative action is a controversial topic in society among all races and genders, and is a topic of dispute in almost all aspects of life, in work environments, in colleges and universities around the nation. Affirmative action attempts to put and end to discrimination but the policy also creates discrimination. It is praised for making universities and places of work more diverse and cultural, while others who feel discriminated against and who feel that they are not being viewed on the same scale as other employees and or students of a different race curse it. Affirmative action is a contradicting and hypocritical policy. The policy is outdated and should be taken out of effect in all aspects of society, especially colleges and places of employment. Being accepted to college or receiving a employment position should be reserved for those most qualified, regardless of their race or ethnicity. In 1964 when affirmative action was first put into place, it was intended to assist African Americans who had been fighting for civil rights. It helped African Americans receive equal employment opportunity.(Froomkin, Washington Post) At this time the policy was very much needed. Blacks had been freed from slavery over a hundred years earlier but still faced many forms of racism and were unable to receive equal opportunity. Affirmative action was a policy that was able to address this oppression. The Executive Order stated that companies that wish to bid on federal contracts must follow the guidelines set by affirmative action and keep a required a number of minorities employed.(Philbrook) Affirmative actions initial intentions were set up to help those on need, but affirmative action has now evolved into a system of meeting quotas. Affirmative action in the working environment discriminates against majorities and leaves qualified employees out in the cold because of their background and color of skin. If two applicants were app...

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A Study on the Self-Perception of Young Female and Male Students from Literature review

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Some recent instance where the mass media seems to have act an agenda Essay

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Some recent instance where the mass media seems to have act an agenda Essay

Some recent instance where the mass media seems to have act an agenda for what public should think - Essay Example In a true democracy, the people are the masters. Consequently, they are entitled to complete information. The media is crucial for providing such information to the public, and it was provided with a number of privileges by the founding fathers of the US. In addition to this freedom the medial is duty bound to provide accurate and complete information. However, this has not always been realized and there were several instances where the media had failed to live up to this requirement. This was noticed with regard to health care legislation, wherein the media failed to provide proper details of the proposed bill (Does the mass media overstep its boundaries?). The reality in the US is that the media, in its totality, is subject to domination. The armed forces of this nation exert a tangible influence on the media and treat it like the other factors involved in national security operations. Thus, the populace is provided with information that has been scrutinized and suitably altered by those responsible for national security (Stanton, 2011). In the list of priorities provided to the Navy Seals, collecting information from the lair of Bin Laden was higher than eliminating him. Such information was anticipated to have considerable bearing on the global and domestic information environment.

Describe the position of black people in the USA in 1945 Essay Example for Free

Describe the position of black people in the USA in 1945 Essay Blacks in the USA in 1945 were not considered as equal; the treatment of people was based on their skin colour, a practice that had been going on for many years before, even after the Reconstruction of society after the Civil War in which the blacks were liberated from slavery. In theory, blacks were free to work and live where they wanted, but the figures at the time told a different story: by 1960, around 17% of the workforce of white-collar workers, i. e. professional, technical, administration, etc., were blacks, while the whites remained the majority at 47%. The blue-collar work, such as craftsmen, manual labourers, etc. jobs that are renowned for needing less skill and education had 40% of the workforce as blacks, and 36% were whites. Blacks just werent provided the education and qualifications to do the professional types of work due to separation of black and white facilities. Not only were they held back at getting the higher-class jobs, they were paid less for the same work that whites did; in 1950, blacks earned about 53% of a whites wage. This figure remained the same over the next 20 years, with it rising 11% to blacks earning 64% of a whites wage. All over the USA, blacks were discriminated against in almost all areas of life, whether it is the law of the state, or just by the custom of the local society. After the abolishment of slavery, slaves had the choice of moving away from their former homes and having their own lives; unfortunately, many blacks didnt have any money to move halfway across the USA to the northern states that had fought to free them. Those who did have the finance to travel rarely had enough money afterwards to sustain a good quality of life after they had moved. The custom of de facto came into play in some of the Northern states; ghettos and places where the majority of the population were black sprung up in towns and cities. Segregation by custom in the North was contrasted with segregation by law, or de jure, in the South- Jim Crow laws forbade blacks, for example, to enter white facilities, or sit on buses with whites, etc. Places where de facto was in force came up with other ways to separate blacks from whites to keep the Southern order of things; red lining was when banks were not allowed to give money for mortgages if they suspected it would be a risky investment- if a black family moved into a certain area, it would lower the prices of the surrounding houses. This meant that places such as ghettos were built up, when the majority of the population were black. This type of segregation wasnt by law, but by custom, blacks werent forced to live in black areas, but they felt pressured to live in certain places because of the practises such as red lining in effect. Although it is in the Constitution that everyone is equal and has the same civil rights, it is beliefs like red lining that push a wedge between races; it may not seem constitutional, but it is up to the Supreme Court in the USA to decide what is constitutional. They decided that slavery was lawful mainly due the fact that the Southern states economy was based on slavery; they were needed to produce cotton, the main export in the 19th century. Without them, the economy would have fallen apart. After the 13th amendment to the Constitution, slavery was no longer legal, but the Supreme Court still remained to overlook state laws that continued discrimination and practices that could be seen as worse then slavery- for example, the Ku Klux Klan were allowed to terrorise and lynch blacks, yet lynching was not made illegal. The Supreme Court declared that the 14th amendment forbids states, but not citizens, from discriminating (1) Separate facilities for blacks and whites were considered as the solution to the discrimination problem; the Supreme Court believed that the blacks were separate but equal when they were forced to use different buildings, transport, schools and hospitals then the whites. Since the Supreme Court approved laws and could declare them unconstitutional if they wanted to, they were the ones who the blacks has to convince if they wanted to change anything; in legal cases, the trial had to be taken to the Supreme Court to have any impact, since the State Courts were always going to be in favour of the Jim Crow laws. The Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) case was when Homer Plessy refused to sit in the coloured car of a train and sat in the white section instead. The case went to Supreme Court, and they ruled that Plessy was guilty and sentenced him to pay a fine or go to jail. This was considered the most shameful ruling of the Supreme Court in history; it shows the extent of the discrimination against blacks, even after slavery was abolished- even though Plessy was 1/8 black and 7/8 white, he was still considered as black in the eyes of the Louisiana law. Although many people thought that this ruling was shocking, there wasnt much that could be done, since they did not have a definite leader to show them what the do; everything that the movement did was relatively unorganised, with maybe one person leading the others. People such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Booker T. Washington tried to unite blacks under one leadership, but it did not work, because everyone has different opinion on what should be done about the discrimination problem. Dr Martin King Jr. was a black leader that advocated peaceful resistance; because of this, many whites accepted him because they knew that he would not cause violence, but blacks did not like this as peaceful protest could only take them so far- they felt that King was weaker then some of the other extremist black leaders, such as Malcolm X. Kings approach to fighting against their oppression wasnt enough to keep the blacks following him; they preferred people who were willing to do more for the benefit of all blacks. Another leader who was thought as weak by fellow blacks was Booker T. Washington; he was accused of being an accommodationist to the whites, as he wasnt campaigning for equal civil rights, he was concentrating on equal job opportunities- this wasnt what the blacks were fighting for; they wanted to be free to do what the whites could do, not only in jobs but in other aspects of life too. The leaders of the movement were not united, therefore they were not strong- many leaders were critical of others, for example, W. E. B DuBois criticised Washington, saying that blacks cannot get social equality if they do not get political equality first. The New Deal is a phrase used to explain the actions taken after Black Tuesday when the US Stock market crashed to stop the effects of the Depression disturbing the lives of the public. Laws were passed to help stop the consequences of the Depression becoming a long-term problem; within the first hundred days, President Roosevelt passed a law that lowered workers salaries and pensions by up to 15%- a move that people did not like, yet it saved a lot of money for the government. Another act was passed that stated that the government could inspect banks before letting them open again so they could see if the bank was eligible to lend and hold money. This prevented banks lending out money that they did not have, therefore they did not losing money for their customers and wouldnt have to close, as they would have to have done if they did lend out money they didnt have. The New Deal was produced so the government could help all of those that were affected by the Depression; this helped the blacks because they were some of the poorest people in the USA at the time, and as many as 8% of blacks were unemployed in 1955. For the blacks, the New Deal slightly improved their way of living as it was designed to help everyone without discrimination. Soon after New Deal was set up, the situation for blacks was improved socially by the outbreak of the Second World War. When the Americans were brought into the war, they needed as many men as they could to fight; blacks had regiments where they could join and be equal to whites, but they still were not allowed to belong to the same regiment as the whites- there were some who did, but they were rare, they normally belonged to an all-black regiment. At the end of the war, the blacks got more ambitious; they were allowed to fight for their country, but America wasnt even grateful enough of them to let them be equal. This would have enraged African Americans since they had fought so hard to be a part of America, so the Civil Rights movement activity increased, which put pressure on the government to do something. The Nazi ideology also pushed the government into action, because what the Americans were doing to the blacks could be compared to the Germans discriminating against the Jews in Germany; the blacks realised this, so demanded equality, as they didnt want the same to happen to them. In conclusion, the position of blacks in 1945 was not equal to whites: even after a century of supposed freedom from slavery, blacks were still treated as inferiors to whites. Laws and acts were in effect that encouraged the discrimination of blacks. Amendments such as the rights for blacks to vote and the rights for them to be equal were passed, but there were so many other laws that cancelled them out. Jim Crow laws in the South and practises such as red lining in the North made it impossible for blacks to be seen as equal politically, whilst rebellions by extremist whites and groups such as the Ku Klux Klan stopped blacks gaining any social standing or equality. Blacks were supposed to be equal, but by 1945, some may comment that the position of them was worse then slavery, as the blacks were on their own in there poverty and discrimination; before, they had their slave owners who would clothe and feed them to keep productive workers- they would never be out on the streets as slaves, but as free people, they received basically no help. Things that whites took for granted, such as clean and good-quality facilities, and jobs that are fair and just are things that blacks counted themselves lucky if they managed to get any equality. People like Martin Luther King Jr. and W. E. B. DuBois tried to get equality, both through violence and peaceful means, but it didnt have much effect to the political and social standing of blacks. The discrimination of blacks continued right into the 20th century, even up into the 21st century. It was slow going for the blacks right to equality, but actions by both blacks and whites changed things for the better. However, in 1945, blacks were not considered as equal, but as 3/5s of a human being. Bibliography: (1) http://www. alternativeinsight. com/Reparations-Slavery. html Field, Ron; Civil Rights in America 1865-1980; Cambridge University Press http://www. lawbuzz. com/can_you/plessy/plessy. htm http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/New_Deal.

The Role Of Jealousy And Your Relationship

The Role Of Jealousy And Your Relationship Do you find yourself constantly checking your boyfriends/girlfriends cellphone, hacking their email, looking through their purse, briefcase , looking for solid evidence to prove their dishonesty? When your partner dresses nicely for an occasion, does your compliment accompany sarcastic remarks? Do you think your partner is a flirt or exceptionally friendly with his workmates? Do you call your partner when youre feeling anxious, just to make sure, he is not with someone else? If the abovementioned scenarios are familiar to you, then chances are you are slowly turning into a green eyed-monster. And if you are not careful this monster will wreak havoc in your relationship. Jealousy is an emotion that refers to the negative thoughts and feelings of insecurity, fear, and anxiety over an anticipated loss of something of valuable, such as a relationship, friendship, or love. It often consists of a combination of emotions such as anger, sadness, and disgust. It is not to be confused with envy. The color green is often associated with jealousy and envy, from which the expressions green with envy, and green-eyed monster. The green eyed monster comes to life when distrust eats into the relationship. This is further aggravated with acts of infidelity. The reality of a third party in a relationship can be most traumatic. For the faint hearted this is enough reason to end ones life. Some partners may be willing to forgive incidents of infidelity, but the devastating experience can never be forgotten. And although there is some level of peace in the relationship instances of nagging doubts can still cause tension, sometimes this triggers the final separation. The irony of it all, is that people who are guilty of cheating, turn out to be the more suspicious. Because they are aware of what could take place, as they are guilty of the crime, they are likely to suspect their partner to do the same. Believe or not even a person who engages in acts of infidelity may feel intense feelings of jealousy. Of course there are some who are naturally distrustful, probably because of some traumatic experience. For instance most kids who were old enough to witness the break-up of their parents, have a hard time trusting others. They believe relationships do not last forever and that the day will come when they too, will left by the person they love. However psychologists are firm that that the root cause of jealousy is internal, and not external factors like third party. People do not get jealous because they saw their partner having fun with someone else. Psychologists believe that a big part of the problem lies within, and external conditions. The pretty girl, or the friendly workmate have nothing to do with it. The possible causes of Jealousy are as follows: Lack of self confidence: People develop feelings of jealousy because they have no faith in their own abilities and skills. They do not believe that they are capable of having happy relationships. They probably think that their current partner is the best that they will ever have, and thus they should make it last forever, because they might not find anyone like it. If youre one hundred percent sure of yourself, youll never have feelings of jealousy because you know that you are deserve to be happy and that you will always attain the life you deserve. If you have faith in yourself you know that you will always have happy relationships, and just in case the current one will not work out, you can always look forward to a better one. Poor self image: Having a poor self image is another cause of jealousy; if you think you are not beautiful then chances are youll be experiencing insecure whenever you are in the presence of someone good looking. You will compare yourself to that person and you will feel bad because you do not have the same eyes, or shes taller or slimmer. A person with a very positive self image, values ones uniqueness. He or she knows that beauty is beyond skin deep. Fear : One of the root causes of feelings of jealousy is fear. Most people are so afraid to lose their partner because they do not want to be alone. They think being alone is synonymous to loneliness. Believe it or not, some people are happily living fulfilling lives on their own, without any partner. When you are alone it is easy to take control of your life, because no one will influence your decision-making process. Some people anchor happiness to being in a relationship. Happiness is a choices. Whether you are in relationship or not, you can still have a happy life. Insecurity: Feelings of insecurity is a result of poor self image, a lack of self confidence topped with the fear of losing your partner to someone else. This can be a very stressful phase in the relationship. Insecurity can lead to nonstop arguments and petty quarrels. If the problem is not addressed immediately then it can lead to something as drastic as separation. Levels of Intensity in professional jealousy There can be intense jealousy if you happen to dislike the party in question. This is very evident in cases of professional jealousy. If you happen to abhor the person who received the promotion, then you could be fuming mad. The opposite can also take place. Of course if the person who received the honor, happens to be a very good friend, then you too will be just as happy. While low self esteem and poor self image can also lead to professional jealousy, another factor to consider is emotional maturity the ability to assess a relationship or situation and to act according to what is best for oneself and for the other person in the relationship. Being emotionally-mature means being just as happy for other peoples success as if it were our own. And so we shouldnt feel bad when someone else wins the contest, or if someone gets a higher grade in class. Negative thoughts bring negative situations and so brewing ill-feelings in our hearts moves us further away from blessings. Invasion of privacy A jealous person will not stop until he or she can come up with a tangible proof of the suspected affair. The alleged aggrieved party would start snooping around going through personal effects, in order to look for clues. Invading ones private space, like hacking ones email password causes dissatisfaction and can ruin a relationship. Such an action is a clear indication of mistrust. How can there be a good relationship if two people no longer trust each other. Of course if there is a strong evidence of cheating invasion of private space may seem logical. However one must be prepared for the ugly truth. Friend or foe Jealousy brings nothing but feelings of negativity. You will end up feeling bad, you will ruin your relationships, and fill your heart with hatred. It leads to blaming others which can result to further misunderstandings. Getting rid of the green-eyed monster: Yes, there is a good side. Like anything else, jealousy can be channeled towards the good. Lets take professional jealousy as an example. If you are aspiring for a promotion at work, and all of a sudden, your boss awards that position to someone else, instead of feeling bad you can look at the bright side and be happy for that persons good fortune. Instead of declaring that the promotion should have been yours, be grateful to the universe for sending you a sign. The fact that a manifestation of that wish has taken place, even if the recipient was not you, is an indication that the universe has acknowledged it. And guess what you are next in line. The other persons good fortune could just be a sign, that your with is in the air, and it will soon be made available to you at the perfect time. Get rid of all ill feelings. Relax, spread love and be happy, for your wish will soon be granted. As for the jealousy that takes place between two people in a relationship, this simply indicates that there are matters that need to be settled. People in love, trust and respect each other. Jealousy is a sign of diminishing trust. Why is your girlfriend so adamant about reading your text messages? Have you been paying her enough attention or have you been spending too much time with the boys? Why is she suddenly having doubts? At this point no one is at fault until proven guilty, however such matters need to be settled, immediately before its too late. Remember that in the law of attraction, thoughts become things. A person in doubt who constantly floods her mind with thoughts of her cheating husband, will eventually bring it to life. Instead of dwelling on the negative, think of the good times, those fun moments with the family, such thoughts will undoubtedly fuel feelings of happiness in your heart. So get rid of that green-eyed monster. It will bring nothing but anger and sadness. Thank God for your wonderful partner every day and stay happy. www.nomorejealousy.com/

Marketing Information Systems (MkIS) Support for the Marketing Management Process :: essays research papers

Marketing Information Systems (MkIS) Support for the Marketing Management Process Introduction More and more, companies are faced with the need to control an ever larger and rapidly changing marketing environment. The information processing requirements of companies are expanding as their competitive environment becomes more dynamic and volatile (Child, 1987). To handle the increasing external and internal information flow and to improve its quality, companies have to take advantage of the opportunities offered by modern information technology (IT) and information systems (IS). Managing marketing information by means of IT has become one of the most vital elements of effective marketing. By collecting and sharing marketing information and by using it to promote corporate and brand image, IS offer new ways of improving the internal efficiency of the firm. IS allow dynamic marketing communication between personnel in corporate planning, accounting, advertising and sales promotion, product management, channels of distribution and direct sales. These systems also relate to marketi ng strategy, marketing planning and the entire marketing management process. IS span the boundary between the organization and its environment by connecting the customers and partners to the firm ¢s warehouse, factory and management. Today interorganizational relationships and interorganizational information systems (IOS) have become a common form for processing transactions and there are many examples of IOS that create electronic linkages between firms (see Bakos, 1991; Cash and Konsynski, 1985). IT has a key role in new flexible organization forms such as strategic partnerships and cross-functional networks. New organizations will be designed around business processes rather than functional hierarchies (Rockart and Short, 1989) and we will face the need for new kinds of IS in marketing. In fact, IS will be the cornerstone of new approaches to marketing. Management and systems designers should therefore be better aware of the avenues available to integrate marketing and management processes in new innovative ways. The objectives of this empirical survey among Finnish wholesale companies are threefold. First, we evaluate which information included in marketing information systems (MkIS) has been important in providing support for the marketing management process. Second, we analyse what improvements in marketing and sales have been realized by implementing MkIS to support the marketing management process. Third, we investigate, in more detail, what operational MkIS sub-systems have contributed to improved effectiveness for implementing and controlling marketing efforts. In order to answer these questions we first develop the analytical framework, and then we describe the survey of 50 marketing organizations in Finland.

Terrorism: An External Shock of a Globalized Society Essay -- Globaliz

Terrorism: An External Shock of a Globalized Society For many, living in a globalized world has generated many benefits and welfare gains to their society, yet now it may be in jeopardy. Globalization is that phenomena where the world appears to be coming closer in terms of communication, services, trade, and culture. Examples of this includes the lowering of transaction costs in all these fields including the lowering of barriers to trade, reduced communication costs, (to an extent) the freer movement of people, and easier access to other countries' information. In economics, there has been a freer movement of goods, services, finance, and production between nation-states. In Europe, though on a regional scale, foreign and domestic policies are being harmonized among the member states. Thus it appears that the world has indeed been coming closer. However the events dealing with the World Trade Center have made many question whether globalization has stopped or is now in decline. Many have tried to even comprehend and question the caus es and motives of terrorism and its multiplier impacts that these terrorist acts have created. In light of this, is globalization viewed more at a discount? Many have been pessimistic, however, the events of September 11 and following may perhaps be a test to the world facing a common enemy and even make them become aware in looking at themselves as a citizen of the world, thus facilitating the increase of globalization. To begin, look at globalization mainly in light of its benefits and costs. Focusing at this idea more narrowed in terms of economics, the benefits include realizing the effects by practicing the theories of comparative advantage, and allowing greater efficiencies that produc... ...he New York terrorist attacks. It will be a long-term commitment as terrorism is complex in itself, yet humanity has progressed so far not to revert and steer into the opposite direction. Globalization pre-September 11 was never actually global, yet the world after this event may hope to aim in that direction. Works Cited Burns, Danny., and Robin Hambelton, Paul Hoggett. The Politics of Decentralization: Revitalizing Local Democracy. London: Macmillan, 1994. "Is it at risk? -Globalization." The Economist 2 Feb. 2002:65-66. "Pearl Warns That Globalization Facilitates Criminal Activities." US Department of State, International Information Programs: Washington File 13 Dec. 2000. < http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/00121300.htm > (27 Feb. 2002) "The Economy: 10 indicators." CNN Money. <http://money.cnn.com/news/economy/> (26 Mar. 2002)

Academic Research Akunna Onyedum

ASPECTS OF THE PHONOLOGY OF GUNGANCHI LANGUAGE BABATUNDE, Oluwatobi Olayemi 07/15CB045 A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES, FACULTY OF ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN ILORIN – NIGERIA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (B. A. Hons) IN LINGUISTICS MAY, 2011. CERTIFICATION This essay has been read and approved as meeting the requirements of Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. _________________________________________________ DR. (MRS. ) B. E. AROKOYODATE Project Supervisor ________________________________________________ PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAMDATE Head of Department _________________________________________________ EXTERNAL EXAMINERDATE DEDICATION This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God, the Alpha and Omega, who gives wisdom and excellence. My dear father, Engr. O. A. Falade, who has been there for me up till this tim e. You are my hero. May God reward you. ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS My profound gratitude goes to the Lord for seeing me through my studies at the University of Ilorin. He has been the Alpha and Omega, my help, inspiration and the source of knowledge and wisdom. He alone deserves my appreciation. Also, my gratitude goes to my lovely parents, ENGR. AND MRS. O. A. FALADE for their love, care, advice, guidance and for providing for all my educational needs. The Almighty God will grant you long life, and enable you to reap the fruits of your labour (Amen). You are the best parents in the world, I love you dearly. I also appreciate the great efforts of my able supervisor, Dr. (Mrs. ) B. E. Arokoyo, who guided me through in my research work, she gave me her time and motherly assistance despite the inconvenience. May the Lord be with you and reward you (Amen). I also appreciate all my lecturers. I want to also appreciate the love and prayers of my kid brother BABATUNDE JOHN TEMITOPE. And my aunts Mrs. O. Y. Philips and Miss Olushola Faniyi. I also want to appreciate the effort of Ogunbiyi Abayomi. You all have been wonderful. My sincere gratitude goes to my informant Corporal Labbo Alkali who helped me in acquiring all necessary information about Gunganchi. May the Lord reward you richly (Amen). Also, I appreciate my friends: Bakare Bimbo, Olagbenro Bola, Dikko Oluwaseun, Adebayo Funke, Saka Tokunbo, Ogunbowale Tobi, Adekoya Oluwaseun, Ajagunna Gideon, Bamidele Bukola, Oyeniran Gbolagade Adebayo Adewale. I also appreciate the effort of my pastor, Pastor Tunde and those who have in one way or the other contributed to the success of this research. Thank you all. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Pagei Certificationii Dedicationiii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contentsvi CHAPTER ONE: 1. 0Introduction 1 1. 1General Background1 1. 2Historical Background of Gunganchi People2 1. 3Sociocultural Background or Profile of the Gunganchi People4 1. 4Genetic Classification of Gunganchi10 1. 5Scope and Organization of Study 11 1. 6Data Collection12 1. 7Data Analysis13 1. 8Review of the chosen Theoretical Framework13 CHAPTER TWO: BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS . 0Introduction 21 2. 1Phonology21 2. 2Sound Inventory of Gunganchi24 2. 3Phonological Description of Gunganchi Consonants and their Distribution 28 2. 4Vowels42 2. 5Distribution of Vowels45 2. 6Distribution of Nasalized Vowels51 2. 7Tonal Inventory54 2. 8Syllable Inventory 56 2. 9Distinctive Features 59 CHAPTER THREE: PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN GUNGANCHI 3 . 0Introduction 70 3. 1Phonological Processes70 CHAPTER FOUR: TONAL PROCESSES AND SYLLABLE PROCESSES 4. 0Introduction 78 4. 1Tone System in Gunganchi78 4. 2Functions of Tone in Gunganchi82 4. 3Tonal Processes83 4. 4Syllable Structure85 4. 5Syllable Structure Rule in Gunganchi89 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5. 0Summary93 5. 1Finding/Observations94 5. 2Recommendations95 5. 3Conclusion96 References97 CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION This chapter is aimed at discussing the case study of the Gungawa people who speak Gunganchi language. It will note their general background, historical background, sociocultural profile, the genetic classification of Gunganchi language. This chapter will also discuss the scope and organization of study, the chosen theoretical framework, data collection, and the data analysis for this project work. 1. 1GENERAL BACKGROUND The Gunganchi people are a tribe that are also called the â€Å"Bareshe† people by their Hausa neighbours which means â€Å"Island Dwellers†, it was told they were given this name due to their closeness to lakes and rivers. Among themselves, they are commonly called â€Å"Gungawa, Tsureja, Bareshe or Yaurawa† people. Their language has different names like: Gunganchi, Tsureshe, Gunga or Tsureja and the name given to their land is either Reshe or Gungu. The present Gunganchi people are the tribe who fled to the nearby Island of Niger in the mid nineteenth century and eventually settled in a new site called Gungu or Yelwa. The Gunganchi people are said to be the original inhabitants of Yauri. During the British regime, the state of Yauri as an emirate and the state of Yelwa as the seat of the Emir of Yauri confirmed that both Yauri and Yelwa became Hausarized as a result of their contact with the Hausa people. Today, the Yauri people speak mostly Hausa language. The Gunganchi people lived in islets (very small islands) and shores of the Niger above Bussa until the creation of Kainji Lake in 1974 which disrupted their settlement and their living outside Kebbi State. 1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF GUNGANCHI PEOPLE According to oral history, the Gunganchi people has different histories that has been narrated which associated with their origin that will be discussed below. In the nineteenth century, a descendant of a warrior called ‘kasira’ who is also known as ‘Kachin’ allied with the Hausa soldiers to conquer the territory in the extreme North who later settled with his co-fighters in the present Yauri town. A native speaker of Gunganchi who is known as â€Å"Agmalafiya† believe that the Gunganchi people came from Kabbawa. He said they were hunters from Katsina State and further explained that some people said the Gunganchi people are from the other Yauri’s ethnic groups which are Shangawa, Kambari, Kabbawa or Sarkawa, Dukawa etc. Another history told us of their trace to the Songhai warriors who came from Mali to seek territorial control and they eventually settled in Yauri and parts of Lopa and Laru (Gunganchi’s neighbouring areas). From the histories narrated above, it is obvious that the Gunganchi people has no specific history concerning their origin. They are divergent in their historical roots. 1. 2. 1Population The Gunganchi people were about forty to sixty thousand in 1993. About thrity-five percent lived outside Yauri Local Government in Kebbi State, sixty percent lived in Yauri town, nine percent in Kotangora, Bussa and Borgu Local Government and one percent in Kiama Local Government Area in Kwara State. Back to 1990, the population of the speakers in Yauri were referred to as Yaurawa or Reshewa in Hausa language. According to Agmalafiya who was mentioned earlier, the Gunganchi people were called Yaurawa by Queen Amina of Zaria but generally called Gungawa among the Gunganchi in Diaspora and sometimes call themselves Bareshe, which is the plural, or Ureshe, which is the singular. 1. 3SOCIOCULTURAL BACKGROUND OR PROFILE OF THE GUNGANCHI PEOPLE According to the Oxford Advanced Leaner’s Dictionary, culture is the way of life, the customs and beliefs, art and social organization of a particular country or group. The Gunganchi people have a social and cultural profile that is similar to that of their neighbouring ethnic group, Hausa. It is said that their lifestyle is centered on the Emirate’s system. The Gunganchi people have their sociocultural beliefs which are expressed in their culture, mode of dressing, occupation, religion, festivals, marriage system, naming ceremony, burial ceremony, their education system and political administration. 1. 3. 1Culture The Bareshe (Gunganchi) people are highly cultured which reflect in their mode of dressing, greetings, occupation and body adornment like decorating the woman’s legs with tattoos and heavy tribal marks on her face during the wedding ceremony. . 3. 2Mode of Dressing The Gunganchi people’s mode of dressing in the olden days is different from their dressing in these modern days. In the olden days, they used to dress in animal skin, while in these modern days, they dress in ‘Banbariga’ which is the traditional dress for men while the women dress in loose covered clothing with a local embroidery scarf which is tied around the woma n’s body to wade off the sun. They are mostly dressed in loose robe for relaxation. 1. 3. 3 Occupation The Gunganchi people are mostly farmers and fishermen. Their major crops are guinea corn, beans, rice, and onions while the fishing equipment which is a fish cage is called ‘Suru’ and ‘Hauwuya’ in Gunganchi language. The people are also known for their canoe and mat making. 1. 3. 4 Religion The Gunganchi people are mostly Muslims and few traditional worshippers and very little Christians. 1. 3. 5Festivals The festivals done in Gunganchi are called ‘Anipo’ festival and ‘Idembe’. Festival. The blood of animals like goat or bushmeat is used as sacrifices to their gods during the festival. During the festival, a round seat is created by the people when eating. Such sittings are also formed at events like wedding, naming ceremony, sallah festival and at relaxation joints. 1. 3. 6 Marriage System of the Gunganchi People The Gunganchi has a distinct way by which marriage is done. It shows a lazy man cannot marry any Gunganchi lady because marriage is said to be a bit difficult most especially for the men. Firstly, a man must inform his parents if he is in love with a lady. Then, the man’s parents must make their son’s interest known to the lady’s parents. He will then farm for the lady’s family he intends to marry from before giving their consent. The farming duration is not specified, the man is said to stop the farming when lady’s father is satisfied and the final consent will be given to the man’s family. The lady’s family will then inform his relatives formally about their daughter’s courtship with the man before the wedding date is chosen. According to Muauzu, the marriage or engagement ceremony is based on Islamic rites whereby the bride price (Zadaki) will be paid. The bride will be decorated with tattoos on her legs and heavy tribal marks on her face. Foods eaten at the ceremony are guinea corn pap, which is served in the morning and rice with fish soup and burukutu is served at dusk. Their sitting position is related to that of the festival’s as mentioned earlier they sit round a dish of guinea corn pap on a mat, their sitting culture is the same with the Hausas. Hence, the Gunganchi people inter marry with the Hausas. 1. 3. 7Naming Ceremony The Gunganchi do their naming ceremony seven days after the child’s birth and its hair will be shaved. Rice or guinea corn pap is served at the ceremony with people sitting round the food. Therefore, the child will be circumcised after ten years. 1. 3. 8Burial Ceremony Like most tribes, the Gunganchi celebrate the death of aged person and mourn the death of a young person. They investigate sudden or unusual death by consulting the oracle called â€Å"Gigo† (true god) or â€Å"Ujigo† (a god of thunder and rain). The oracle will make the spirit of the deceased to revenge for his or her death by killing the person who is responsible for his or her death. However, this practice is peculiar to the local or extreme Gunganchi people. 1. 3. 9Education System The Gunganchi value the Western education, they give education to both their male and female children. They have schools; they also make use of their personal houses as schools. 1. 3. 10 Political Administration The Gunganchi adopted the system of their neighboring tribe (Hausa) which is the Emirate’s system because it is a multi-ethnic area that consist Yelwa, Lopa, Yauri, Laru people which co-exist with them. The Emir’s palace is situated in Yelwa, thus, the Gunganchi are the first settlers in Yauri. The appointed Emir is the ruler of all the ethnic groups under Yauri. During the British regime, recognition was given to the Yauri emirate and Gungu (Island) district of the Yauri Local Government which are now the center of Reshe (Gunganchi) population. In the political administration of the Gunganchi people, succession is not by hereditary because the Emir must be appointed, despite the fact that a Gunganchi man was the first Emir of Yauri. The Emir must have some qualities before he can be appointed, like; he must be an elderly person, famous and respected among the ethnic groups made up of Yauri. When a new Emir is appointed, turbaning will be done as a sign of leadership. The Emir rules the territory with his local chiefs called â€Å"Sariki† in areas like Gungunsariki, Banha, Rekubolo, Toro, Zamari, Jalubabu etc. Presently, the Local Government Chairman is responsible for the executive function of Yauri and other governmental activities are executed by the Kebbi State Government. However, most of the Gunganchi people are bilingual, (they speak both Gunganchi and Hausa) but the majority speaks Gunganchi at home especially the youths. Thus, the language of the emirate is Hausa with high prestige. . 4GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF GUNGANCHI Genetic classification is the sub-grouping of all relevant languages into genetic nodes (group of languages in each of which one language is more closely related to the other in that group than to any language outside the group). The basis for genetic classification is the idea that group of languages that share certain systemic resemblan ces have inherited those similarities from a common origin. Thus, genetic classification makes two statements. First, it affirms that certain languages are infact related to each other (i. e. hare a common ancestor). Second, it specifies how the languages are interrelated in the form of a branching diagram. Gunganchi language falls under the Niger-Kordofanian language family. African Language Afro-AsiaticNiger KordofanianNilo SaharanKhoisan MandeNew Benue Congo AtlanticVolta Congo Kordofanian OkoDefoidKainjiIdomoidEdoidWolof Western KainjiEastern Kainji KamukuKainji LakeGunganchi (Gungawa)KambariBassaLopa 1. 5SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF STUDY This work is limited to the aspects of the phonology of Gunganchi language and it is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introductory part, which includes the general background, historical background, sociocultural profile of Gunganchi people, genetic classification of Gunganchi language, scope and organization of study, data collection, data analysis and the review of the chosen theoretical framework. Chapter two deals with the basic phonological concepts that involves the sound inventory of Gunganchi language whereby the tonal inventory and syllable inventory of the language of study shall be discussed and the sound distributions which includes distinctive features. Chapter three is based on the phonological processes found in Gunganchi language. Then, chapter four will focus on the tonal and syllable processes of Gunganchi language. Chapter five will summarize and conclude the work. 1. 6DATA COLLECTION In this research work, the method used for our data collection is the direct translation method from English language to the project language which is Gunganchi based on the Ibadan 400 wordlist. There was a direct interview with the language helper, thus, data elicitation was carried out with the wordlist recorded on audio cassette. Informant’s Data: Name:Corporal Labbo Alkali Occupation:Soldier Age: 40 years Religion:Muslim Languages spoken apart from Gunganchi: Hausa and English Number of years spent in Reshe (Gunganchi): 20 years 1. 7DATA ANALYSIS To ensure an accurate data analysis in this research work, all the data collected were carefully and correctly written, tone marked and transcribed. The data collected were used according to how the native speaker used them without imposing any extra rules or norms. 1. REVIEW OF THE CHOSEN THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The framework adopted for this research work is Generative Phonology, which was developed by Chomsky and Halle in the early 1950s; it is a component of generative grammar. This framework assigns the correct phonetic representations to ‘utterances’ in such a way as to reflect a native speaker’s internalized grammar. According to Oyebade (2008: 9), Generative Phonology is a theory which is built on the insight of taxonomic phonemics e ven while remodeling the focus of phonological analysis. The major motivation for this theoretical framework was the clash between theoretical assumptions and linguistic data under the theory of classical (taxonomic) phonemics. Generative phonology took off at maximum speed in the 1960s, following the works of Chomsky and Halle (published in 1968 as â€Å"Sound Pattern of English (SPE)†. This theory argues that the taxonomic approach of classical phonemics was not adequate enough to address appropriately the phenomenon of human speech. The proponents of this new school of phonology suggest that an adequate theory of phonology must account for: a) The phenomenon of language acquisition b) The puzzling fact that man can still understand the speech of another even when this speech is defective; and c) The native speaker’s intuition about the physical make-up of the speech of his language. 1. 8. 1The Structure of Generative Phonology Generative phonology assumes three very crucial components: the underlying representation, the phonetic representation and the rules which link the two together that is called the phonological rules. These components will be reviewed below. 1. 8. 1. 1Underlying Representation Oyebade (2008: 12) assumes underlying representation to be an abstract representation existing in the linguistic competence of the native speaker. The underlying representation is the most basic form of a word before any phonological rules have been applied to it. Underlying representation shows what a native speaker knows about the abstract underlying phonology of the language. At this level, items with invariant meaning have identical representation. The underlying representation is also known as â€Å"the phonological representation†, thus, the ability (competence) of a native speaker to compute a sentence is referred to as the phonological representation and this competence can be scientifically investigated. There is an assumption of an underlying level where there is a one-to-one correspondence between form and meaning and which is exactly the same from one competent speaker to another which explains the puzzling reaction of children in the acquisition process. Since the child shares the same competence (and therefore the same underlying representation) as the adult, it is reasonable to assume that the child will expect the same output as the adult will expect. The child may not be able to produce such an output since his production capability is slower in the acquisition process than his competence. The assumption of an underlying representation which accounts for the rapid processing of defective input. Both interlocutors have a shared competence which is accurate and invariant; the decoder part participant thus has a prototype with which he can restructure the defective utterance of the encoder. Also, the underlying representation has the property of being encoded in â€Å"distinctive features† (these features will be discussed in the next chapter). This assumption is motivated by the fact that language seems to target these features in making its choices rather than segments. 1. 8. 1. 2 The Phonetic Representation The phonetic representation is the form of a word that is spoken and heard. It is also known as â€Å"the surface level†. Phonological structure reflects the linguistic competence of the native speaker to compute a phonetic representation for the potentially infinite number of sentences generated by the syntactic component of the grammar. We can say that there is no speaker of a language that has heard all the sentences in his language but speaker has the ability to understand any sentence heard. Phonetic representation indicates how the lexical item is to be realized in speech. It is characterized by degree of narrowness such that, at the very least, any two sounds that are distinguished in any human language are differently represented. Generative phonology seems to consider this level as being trivial and not worth too much attention except, perhaps as a source for the verification and justification of the proposed underlying representation. 1. 8. 13 Phonological Rules Phonological rules map underlying representation onto phonological representations. They delete, insert, or change segments, or change the features of segments. They are said to show the derivational sequence or path of an item in its journey from the underlying level to the phonetic level. They must be able to capture the phonological phenomenon in the simplest form. There are two types of rules in phonological rules: feature changing rules and fill-in rules. The feature changing rules change the features of the input to that of the output. However, the other kind of rules called fill-in rules are rules, as the name implies, which fill in empty slots. Phonological rules have to be precise in a scientific account of linguistic phenomena. It was therefore suggested that the rules should have their own format. For instance, a rule can say insert a high front vowel between a cluster of consonants and we can have another rule which says insert a high front vowel after a word-final consonant. These rules can be formalized thus: a. O(i/C____C b. O(i/C____# As you can observe from the formalization of the two rules, they are identical in input and output. Furthermore, they have a lot of similarities in the environment. If the rules are left like this, that is, as two separate rules, the implied claim will be that these are two separate and distinct processes. This is intuitively incorrect and it loses a linguistically significant generalization. These two rules can then be collapsed into one and to capture the linguistically significant fact that we are dealing with the same process. Thus (a) and (b) can be combined as in (c) below: C c. O(i/C—— # that is, a high front vowel is inserted either between two consonants or after a consonant at word final position. In phonological rules, notational devices are applied. They are conventions which make it possible to combine distinct but related phonological rules in a single statement; rules may be collapsed in this way only if they involve the same process. In other words, notational devices are abbreviation conventions aimed at reducing several rules into one. The purpose is to present more economically the facts of language. There are notational devices like: brace notation ({}), angled bracket notation (), variable features or alpha notation ((), multiple variable notation ((,(, ? , etc. ). The role of these devices is to make it possible for the phonologists to precisely and unambiguously state in rule form and the process that is taking place in language when a pattern is observed. Secondly, it makes linguistiscally significant generalizations and claims about the way language works. Finally, and perhaps most trivially, it provides a shorthand abbreviatory method by which a complex process can be captured as briefly as possible. CHAPTER TWO BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 2. 0INTRODUCTION This chapter is based on the phonology of Gunganchi language. The sound inventory which involves the tonal inventory and the syllable inventory will be discussed. It also focuses on the sound distribution of Gunganchi language where the distinctive features will be discussed. 2. 1PHONOLOGY According to Davenport and Hannahs (2005: 2), phonology deals with how speech sounds are organized into system for each individual language: for example: how the sounds can be combined, the relations between them and how they affect each other. In phonology, the root ‘phone’ relates to ‘voice’, sound and ‘logos’ which means ‘word; speech’ originates from the Greek words. Phonology as a subfield of linguistics is the study of the rules behind the way sounds encode meaning in language. Also, it is the study of sounds and patterns in a language. It can be said that phonology seeks to discern the sounds made in all human languages. In addition, phonology studies how sounds alternate that is the minimal meaningful sounds which are ‘PHONEMES’. However, phonemes are sets of phones, which function as one unit in a language, and provide contrast between different words. It is also a sound segment of words or syllables. In human language, a phoneme is the smallest structural unit that distinguishes meaning. The phonemic inventory of a language is the set of phonemes it possesses. In the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabets), phonemes are conventionally enclosed in forward sashes (//) and speech sounds that are not phonemes are placed in brackets ([ ]). For example, the /t/ sound in the English words ‘tip’, ‘stand’, ‘cat’ and ‘water’ are conceived of as being the same sound, despite the fact that in each word they are pronounced somewhat differently; the difference may not even be audible to native speakers. One of the most important tools for examining phonemes is the ‘minimal pair’ which means different words but differ as a result of one sound, that is, a pair of words which differ only in one segment. In a minimal pair, one can be sure that the difference between words is phonemic in nature, because the segments in question are surrounded by the same environment and this cannot be allophones of each other. Examples of minimal pair in Gunganchi are: [ut(i]‘tree’ [at(i] ‘firewood’ [hina]‘cow’ [wina]‘tail’ [ureta]‘right(side)’ upeta]‘medicine’ [kwubanoh]‘open’ [kwubaloh]‘close’ [itamia]‘push’ [igamia]‘sweep’ A phoneme may encompass several recognizable different speech sounds called ‘PHONES’. In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. In the examples stated earlier, the /t/ in ‘tip’ is aspirated [th], whi le the /t/ in stand is unaspirated [t]. Thus, phones that belong to the same phonemes are called allophones such as [th] and [t] are allophones of the phoneme /t/ given in the examples given earlier. Allophones are often conditioned by their environment. For example, the English phoneme /t/ is realized as a tap [r] between vowels in normal speech when not preceeding a stressed vowel as in ‘butter’. In a case like this we can say that the stop [t] and tap [r] which are allophones of the phoneme /t/ are in ‘complementary distribution’, as every environment selects for either one or the other, and the allophones themselves may be referred to as ‘COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION’. 2. 2SOUND INVENTORY OF GUNGANCHI Human sounds can be grouped into two basic classes whereby they are found in Gunganchi. They are: 1. Consonants 2. Vowels 2. . 1Consonants Consonants are sounds produced with an obstruction of the air passage somewhere along the vocal tract. A consonant in terms of sound production is a sound which is obstructed in some way by the tongue or lip contact e. g. in Gunganchi, sounds like /k/, /p/ as in; /k/([ka? ina]‘reply’ /p/([puteta]‘forget’ as opposed to the unobstructed sound of a vowel. Consonant sounds require a certain degree of constriction of the vocal tract in their production, therefore, at some point, diverting, impeding or completely shutting off the airflow of air in the oral cavity. This constriction of the vocal tract may involve complete closure or partial closure. In terms of the sound system, the consonant is a sound that typically occurs at the beginning or end of the syllable rather than in the middle of it, thus contrasting with vowels. Thus, the organs of speech that obstruct at some point in the oral cavity are known as the ‘articulators’. From the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate and alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The consonant sounds are classified by; a) Voicing b) Place of articulation c) Manner of articulation 2. 2. 1. 1 Voicing Consonants may be voiced or voiceless. As the airstream comes to or from the lungs, it passes through the opening between the glottis. If the vocal cords are open, the air passes through without obstruction and the sounds that are made in this way, are described as ‘voiceless’. If the vocal cords closed, then the air passing through the glottis causes them to vibrate producing ‘voiced’ sounds. Some of the consonant sounds in Gunganchi come in pairs that differ in being voiced or voiceless e. g. /b/ and /p/ ( /b/ is voiced and /p/ is the voiceless consonant in one pair. /k/ and /g/ are found in another pair, /k/ is voiceless and the voiced sound is /g/. Also, it applied to /d/ and /t/, /d/ is voiced while /t/ is the voiceless consonant which forms another pair. 2. 2. 1. 2 Place of Articulation It is the point of articulation where both the active and passive articulators meet or contact to produce the desired consonant. Here, we have to do with the position of the tongue and lips. The places of articulation in Gunganchi are; bilabial, alveolar palato-alveolar, velar, labial-velar, palatal, glottal, palatalized velars and alveolar, labialized-alveolar and velars. 2. 2. 1. 3 Manner of Articulation Manner of articulation makes reference to the type of stricture which the articulators are making to produce the consonant sounds. The obstructions made may be total, intermittent, partial or narrow enough to cause friction. The manners of articulation in Gunganchi are stop, nasal, fricative, affricate, trill, lateral and approximant. However, it is observed that there is the presence of consonant clusters in Gunganchi language that is consonants occurring together side by side e. g. [riadda]‘matchet’ [ubalkari]‘male’ [kwa] ‘take(one thing)’ Thus, the consonants attested in Gunganchi are: /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /tw/ /dw/ /dj/ /k/ /g/ /kw/ /gw/ kj/ /gj/ /gb/ /r/ /m/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /(/ /h/ /hj/ /ts/ /t(/ /? // /l/ /j/ /w/ /r/. 2. 2. 2. 1 Gunganchi Consonant Chart |Bilabial |Alveolar |Labialized |Palatalize |Palate-alveolar |Palatal |Velar | | | | |alveolar |alveolar | | | | |High |+ |- |- |- |- |- |+ | |Low |- |- |- |+ |- |- |- | |Round |- |- |- |- |+ |+ |+ | |ATR |+ |+ |- |- |- |+ |+ | 2. 9. 4Segment Redundancy for Gunganchi Consonants Redundancy is the principle that helps in predicting some features from the presence of other features; thus, the feature that predicts the feature of the other is said to be redundant. Gunganchi language attest to a number of features that are completely predictable at all stages of derivation. All the redundant features are expressed as fill-in rule or [if –then]. However, the output of the phonological components must specify all feature in such a way that it indicates necessary features used in derivation. i)If:[+ syll] Then:+ son – cons ii)If:[+ cons] Then:+ voice – strid iii)If:[+ ant] Then:[+ cons] iv)If:[+ nas] Then:- cont – strid + voice + son 2. 9. 5Segment Redundancy for Gunganchi Vowels | |i |e |( |a |? o |u | |High |+ |- |(-) |(-) |(-) |- |+ | |Low |(-) |- |- |+ |(-) |(-) |(-) | |Round |- |- |- |(-) |+ |+ |+ | |ATR |(+) |+ |- |(-) |- |+ |(+) | All of the predictable redundancies can be expressed as fill-in rules which are also called if â€⠀œthen segment structure constraints as done for consonants above. i)If:[+ high] Then:[- low] ii)If:[+ low] Then:[- high] iii)If:[+ high] Then:[+ ATR] iv) If:[+ round] Then:[- low] v)If:[+ low] Then:[- round] vi)If:[+ low] Then:[- ATR] vii)If:[+ ATR] Then:[- low] viii)If:[- ATR] Then:[- high] However, redundancies come from any of two sources: the first is the attempt to express the physiological possibilities (or impossibilities) of the vocal organs. For example, the constraints if [+ high] then [- low] makes the claim that the tongue cannot be raised and lowered at the same time. In other words, if the tongue is raised then it is not lowered and if it is lowered then it is not raised. Since the physiological possibilities of the human vocal tract is universal to all human beings, this type of redundancy is a universal one. The second source comes from the fact that languages do not always maximally utilize all combinatorial possibilities logically expected when features come together. CHAPTER THREE PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN GUNGANCHI 3. INTRODUCTION This chapter will be discussing the phonological processes found in Gunganchi language. 3. 1PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Phonological processes are sound modifications motivated by the need to maintain euphony in a language or to rectify violations of well-formedness constraints in the production of an utterance. (Oyebade 2008: 61). Segments are either within the same morpheme or at morpheme boundary under various conditions may undergo certain changes. Therefore, these changes are known as ‘phonological processes’. Environment within which sounds occur may affect changes. The phonological processes in Gunganchi are: 3. 1. 1Assimilation According to Oyebade (2008: 63), assimilation is when two contiguous sounds which have different modes of production become identical in some or all of the features of their production. Assimilation is the modification of sounds in the direction of greater similarity to the surrounding phonological environment (Langacker 1972: 270). Assimilation may be either partial or total. Tonal assimilation is the converting of the changing segment to become identical to other segment and assimilation may be partial such that only some features of the changing consonant (or vowel) becomes identical with that of the initiating segment. Examples of assimilation in Gunganchi: ugika[ugjka]‘bag’ In the above example, the voiced velar stop bears the feature ‘high’ of the vowel [i]. It is observed that when the voiced velar stop occur before a high unrounded front vowel, it becomes palatalized which shows assimilation has taken place. – cont+ syll – ant([high]__________- back – cor- round + voice+ high unun[unu]‘mouth’ anuhin[anuhi]‘teeth’ In the examples above, vowels take on the feature of the alveolar nasal. Thus, vowel becomes nasalized before alveolar nasal. + syll- cont -cons([+ nas]__________+ ant + cor + nas 3. 1. 2Vowel Elision Vowel elision is another common phonological process. According to Oyebade (2008: 69), vowels are usually deleted when two or more vowels occur across morpheme boundary. When such an occurrence is introduced by morphological processes, the language may choose to drop the first or the second of the contiguous vowels. Examples in Gunganchi are: [itsuria][akatua]([itsuriakatua] ‘buy’ ‘shoe’‘buy (a) shoe’ [ikabia][uwapo] ( [ikabiuwapo] ‘money’ ‘house’‘house rent’ However, it is observed that low back unrounded vowels are deleted at morpheme boundary if the next morpheme begins with a vowel. + syll+ syll + low(O___________- cons + back – round 3. 1. 3Labialisation Labialisation is the super-imposition of liprounding on a segment in such a way that the feature of a vowel now attaches to the consonant articulated (Oyebade 2008: 66). Examples of labializationin Gunganchi language are: [utw? ha]‘ear’ [rotwua]‘neck’ [abakjrdwola]‘animal’ [ndwuwa]‘person’ The alveolar stops [t] and [d] that are not naturally, they labialized take on the feature of the rounded vowels. We can therefore, say that alveolar stops become labialized before back rounded vowels. – cont+ syll + ant([lab]_____________+ back + cor+ rounded Other examples of labialization are: [igbagwua] ‘pepper’ [ugwohua]‘kolanut’ [ribulukwu]‘cooking’ [alokwotwo]‘snail’ It is also observed that velar stops [k] and [g] become labialized before back rounded vowels. – cont+ syll – ant([+lab]_____________+ back – cor+ round 3. 1. 4Palatalisation According to Oyebade (2009: 65), palatalisation is the super-imposition of tongue raising on a segment. Here are examples in Gunganchi language: [ugjika:]‘bag’ [akjikwa]‘millet’ [inagji]‘pull’ [gjirana]‘descend’ In the above examples, velar stops are palatalized before high vowel. – cont+ syll – ant([+ high]_____________+ high – cor 3. 1. 5Insertion Oyebade (2008: 74) states that: â€Å"Insertion is a phonological process whereby an extraneous element not present originally is introduced into the utterance usually to break up unwanted sequence†. Examples in Gunganchi are shown below. [upowabetatsunia]([upowabetatsunia] ten +one‘eleven’ [upowabetat(zuwa]([upowabetat(zuwa] ten +six‘sixteen’ alosobetatsunia]([alosobetatsunia] twenty +one‘twenty one’ [alosobetajisoh]([alosobetajisoh] twenty +two‘twenty two’ 1. 3. 6Nasalisation Nasalisation is a process where by an oral segment acquires nasality from a neighbouring segment (Katamba 1989: 93). Nasalisation is significant in Gunganchi, for instance; [matsunih? ]‘surpass’ [iji]‘see’ [tsunia] ‘one’ [udaga] ‘stick’ Therefore, vowels become nasalised before alveolar nasal, that is; + syll- cont – cons([+ nas]_____________+ ant + cor + nas CHAPTER FOUR TONAL PROCESSES AND SYLLABLE PROCESSES 4. 0INTRODUCTION This Chapter will be discussing the tone system and the processes found in Gunganchi language. It will also focus on the syllable processes in Gunganchi language. 4. 1TONE SYSTEM IN GUNGANCHI Davenport and Hannahs (2005: 84-85) states that â€Å"In many languages, pitch variation is used to distinguish one word from another. Languages which use pitch in this way are known as ‘tone languages’, and the individual pitch patterns associated with words or syllables are known as ‘tones’†. According to Carlos and Haike (2005: 12), tone languages used pitch contrasts to keep words apart in the same way that languages use vowel and consonant for this purpose. Tone is the differentiation of two words with the same segmental presentation with the use of its pitch. And a language is said to be a tone language when the differences in word meaning are signaled by the differences in pitch. Tone is essentially a property of individual syllables or words and also it is typically used as a way of distinguishing between items at word level (such as minimal pairs, words which are identical except for one component). 4. 1. 1Tone Typologies There are two categories of tone; a. Level tones b. Contour tones 4. 1. 1. 1 Level Tones The tones whereby the pitch is maintained at the same rate for the duration of the syllable are known as ‘level tones’ (Davenport and Hannahs 2005: 85). Level tones are high, mid and low tones. These tones may occur on all syllables. The high tone is indicated by an acute accent (/), the low tone is marked with a grade accent () and the mid tone is represented as (-) or unmarked. Thus, the mid tone is not marked in Gunganchi. 4. 1. 1. 2 Contour Tones According to Davenport and Hannahs (2005: 85), contour tones are tones exhibiting pitch variation during their production. Contour tones consists of the falling tone (^) which is a tone that starts high and end low, and the rising tone (V) which starts low and end high. Contour tones only appear on monosyllables and on the final syllables of disyllabic words. 4. 1. 2Tonal Pattern in Gunganchi Gunganchi is a tone language and it is a level tone language which attests to the high, low and mid tones. Each syllable of Gunganchi language bears a tone. Examples of words that bears the high tone in Gunganchi are: [kwa]‘take(one thing)’ [? w? ]‘sun’ [riba]‘thing’ Occurrence of low tones in Gunganchi language can be shown in the following examples: [dja]‘here’ [riadda]‘matchet’ Occurrences of mid tones in Gunganchi are: [alahagw? mi]‘jaw’ [wuru]‘moon’ [ajaba]‘plantain’ However, there are two or more words in Gunganchi language which have exactly the same consonants and vowels but have different meaning because of a difference in contrastive pitch. These are referred to as tonemes that contrast minimally. For instance; [rotwua]‘neck’HHH [rotwua]‘belly(externall)HHM [kwubaloh]‘cover(in hand)’HLH [kwubaloh]‘close’HML Co-occurrence of tones in Gunganchi In Gunganchi, the low, high and mid tones co-occur. There is the co-occurrence of the low and mid tones, examples are; [ol? ha]‘nose’ [t(ib? ]‘town’ [hia(i]‘dust’ Examples of the co-occurrence of high, mid and low tones in Gunganchi are: [hirokwa]‘horse’ [ibulukw? ]‘he goat’ [alakana(a]‘four hundred’ 4. 2. 1 Functions of Tone in Gunganchi Tone performs two distinct functions, they are: a) Lexical function b) Grammatical function 4. 2. 1. 1 Lexical Function Tone can be used to differentiate lexical items that have identical segments. For example in Gunganchi; [kwubaloh]‘cover (in hand)’HLH [kwubaloh]‘close’HML [rotwua]‘belly(external)HHM [rotwua]‘neck’HHH Note that the different tonemes have resulted in the differences in the meaning of the words above. 4. 2. 1. 2 Grammatical Function Tone is also used to differentiate between different grammatical forms. But, this function is not found in Gunganchi language. 4. 3TONAL PROCESSES As with segments, tones are also modified by their environment. Thus, this gives rise to tonal processes. 4. 3. 1 Tone Elision This occurs when two tones are juxtaposed across morpheme boundary and the final vowel of the first word gets elided causing the tone on it to be elided too. Examples in Gunganchi are: [ikabia][uwapo]([ikabiuwapo]‘house rent’ ‘money’‘house’ [itsuria][akatua](itsuriakatua] ‘buy’‘shoe’‘buy(a) shoe’ 4. 3. 2 Tone Stability In relation to tone, the issue is that â€Å"†¦in tone languages, we find that when a vowel desyllabifies or is deleted by some phonological rules, the tone it was bearing does not disappear, rather, it shifts its location and shows up on some other vowel†. (Goldsmith1976:30). Example of tone stability in Gunganchi: [ubula] [alokat(i] ( [ubulalokat(i] ‘rainy season’ ‘rain’‘time’ 4. 3. 3 Tone Spreading This is a tonal process whereby there are more segments than tone, the tone will then spread to the segment as it is a must that the segments bear tone. This process is not found in Gunganchi language. 4. 3. 4 Floating Tone Oyebade (2008: 15) says that during derivation, segment is specified for tone but merges with vowel, thus, passing its tonal specification to that vowel. Gunganchi does not have floating tone. 4. 3. 4 Tone Contraction This is when tone segmentalization creates two identical tones on the same syllable, the two identical tones are contracted to give only one. Gunganchi language does not attest to this tonal process. However, it is observed that there is the case of nasal consonant that bears tone. Such nasal is referred to as a syllabic nasal because it is interpreted as a vowel that carries a tone. Examples of this in Gunganchi are: [nduwa]‘person’ [nduwakabi]‘old person’ In the words above, the nasal [n] bears the high tone which makes it to function the way other vowels functions. 4. 4SYLLABLE STRUCTURE The syllable is a supra-segmental unit. It can be easily recognized in a language. Davenport and Hannahs (2005: 73) states that: â€Å"One such articulatorily based attempt at the definition involves the notion of a ‘chest pulse; or ‘initiator burst’, that is, a muscular contraction in the chest (involving the lungs) which corresponds to the production of a syllable; each syllable, on this view, involves one burst of muscular energy†. Williamson (1984) defines the syllable as ‘the smallest unit of language which can be pronounced. It is a unit of sound made up of one or more segments during which there is a single chest pulse and a single peak of sonority. Hyman (1975: 188) states that ‘a syllable is made up of an onset, and a core. And the core is further divided into a peak and coda’. However, a syllable is divided into three parts: 1) The onset 2) The core or nucleus 3) The coda The syllable can be represented thus: Syllable OnsetCore Peak (Nucleus)Coda C V(C) This can be illustrated in the example in Gunganchi below: [joh] ‘stand (up)’ ( OnsetCore ConsonantPeakCoda (Nucleus) JVowel(Consonant) ( h The syllable coda and onset are made up of consonant segments while the peak is made up of vowel segment and syllabic consonants. The peak is an obligatory part of the syllable, thus, there must be a peak. The onset (beginning) and coda (end) which usually consist of consonant(s) are optional parts of the syllable. Each syllable carries at least one significant unit of tone in tonal languages. 4. 4. 1 Types of Syllable A syllable can be either an open syllable or closed syllable. It is language specific; some languages may exhibit either of the two syllable types while some languages make use of the two (open and closed syllables) like Gunganchi language. 4. 4. 1. 1Open Syllable This is a syllable in which words end in a vowel, it is a syllable without the coda. Examples in Gunganchi are: [ububa]‘leaf’ [akahoj‘village’ [babi]‘children’ [hilelio]‘elephant’ 4. 4. 1. 2 Closed Syllable Closed syllable is a syllable typology that has at least one consonant following the vowel or closing the nucleus. Examples are: [lakapitwoh]‘old(opp. new)’ [[kakaw]‘pour’ [rimonoh]‘work’ Gunganchi attests to both the open and closed syllable. 4. 5SYLLABLE STRUCTURE RULE IN GUNGANCHI This is the rule that states the possible sequence of sounds or segment in a syllable. Words differ with regard to the number of syllables contained in them. Some words have just one syllable, others may have two or more, hence, words are classified as being monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic and polysyllabic depending on how many syllable(s) such words have. The syllable structures in Gunganchi are: CV VCV N- Syllable Structure Cw- Syllable Structure Cj- Syllable Structure 4. 5. 1 CV-Syllable Structure The CV-syllable structure is the most common type of syllable structure in Gunganchi. It is mostly found in monosyllabic and disyllabic or trisyllabic and polysyllabic. 4. 5. 1. 1 CV-Structure in Monosyllabic Monosyllabic is a word having a single syllable. For instance, in Gunganchi: [dja]‘here’ 4. 5. 1. 2 CV-Structure in Disyllabic Disyllabic is a word consisting of two syllables. For example: [nana]‘come’ [riba]‘thing’ [riwo]‘corpse’ [hino]‘bee’ 4. 5. 1. 3 CV-Structure in Trisyllabic A word consisting of three syllables is called ‘trisyllabic’. Examples of such words in Gunganchi language are: [rihama]‘food’ [rirogwo]‘cassava’ [rigwula]‘knife’ [hi(aho]‘hawk’ 4. 5. 1. 4 CV-Structure in Polysyllabic Polysyllabic is a word consisting of more than three syllables. Examples in Gunganchi language are: [ribulukwu]‘cooking’ [hamatsaro]‘maize’ [[rit(at(? pua]‘chin’ [ri(iteitwo]‘hat/cap’ 4. 5. 2 VCV-Syllable Structure Examples of VCV-syllable structure in Gunganchi language are illustrated below: [uwi]‘die’ [ut(a]‘guest(stranger)’ [ubi]‘child’ [ut? ]‘father’ 4. 5. 3 N-Syllable Structure This type of syllable is a ‘syllabic-nasal’. It will be interpreted as a vowel because like a vowel, the syllabic nasal carries at tone. In Gunganchi, examples are: [nduwa]‘person’ [nduwakabi]‘old person’ [ndukami]‘man’ 4. 5. 4 Cw-Syllable Structure The [CwV] structure in Gunganchi includes the following: [hitsokwutso]‘guinea fowl’ [ukwulu]‘room’ [mutwo]‘ashes’ 4. 5. 5 Cj-Syllable Structure Examples in Gunganchi language are: [inagji]‘pull’ [(ikjitwo]‘learn’ [gjirana]‘descend’ CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, FINDINGS/OBSERVATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5. 0SUMMARY This research work has examined the phonological aspects of Gunganchi language. Words are said to be well-patterned and the principles of well-formedness are followed. The method used for the data collection in this research work is the direct translation method from English language to Gunganchi language based on the Ibadan 400 word-list. There was a direct interview with the informant, thus, data elicitation was carried out. The essence of using the illuminating data is to be able to make linguistically significant generalizations. This project work is divided into five chapters. Chapter one is the introductory part which dealt with the general background of Gunganchi people, their sociocultural profile, genetic classification of the language, the scope and organization of study, review of the chosen theoretical framework, data collection and data analysis. Chapter two of this work examined the basic phonological concepts. The sound inventory which involves the tonal inventory and syllable inventory of Gunganchi language was discussed, also, their sound distributions whereby the distinctive features was examined. The third chapter then discussed phonology itself, thus, examined the phonological processes in Gunganchi language. Meanwhile, the phonological processes found in Gunganchi language are: assimilation, nasalisation, labialisation, palatalisation, insertion and vowel elision. However, the phonological rules were also accounted for. Chapter four of this work discussed the tonal and syllable processes. These processes were well examined with illuminating examples from Gunganchi language. Finally, chapter five summarized the work. It also made observations, recommendations and conclusion. 5. 1FINDING/OBSERVATIONS Majority of Gunganchi speakers also speak Hausa language and it is observed that some words in Gunganchi are borrowed from Hausa language. Gunganchi language attests to both open syllable structure and closed syllable structure. Also, when some words in Gunganchi occur across morpheme boundary, the last vowel of the first word gets deleted. There is the case of consonant cluster in Gunganchi language which is another observation. It was also observed that Gunganchi attest to the level tones (high, mid, low) and these tones co-occur in words. Finally, there are some words in Gunganchi that differs as a result of tone which is tonemic contrast. 5. 2RECOMMENDATIONS Through this research, useful insight has been drawn from the phonological aspects of Gunganchi language. As a matter of fact, the language has not been exposed to thorough linguistic scrutiny. There is need for linguists to focus their attention more on the language. This project has studied the aspects of the phonology of Gunganchi language. I hereby recommend that linguists should shed more light on this aspect and other aspects of Gunganchi language. Researchers who would like to research further on Gunganchi will find this research work a reliable reference. 5. 3CONCLUSION Some aspects of the phonology of Gunganchi language have been surveyed. For want of space and time, it has not been possible to treat all aspects of the language. However, I hope this study will inspire further research in the language. REFERENCES Carlos, G. and Haike, J. (2005). â€Å"Understanding Phonology† (2nd Edition). Great Britain: Hodder Arnold. Goldsmith, J. (1976). Autosegmental Phonology. MIT DIssertion IVLC, New York: Grandland Press. Hyman, L. M. (1975). â€Å"Phonology: Theory and Analysis. 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